{"id":866,"date":"2018-03-26T02:47:19","date_gmt":"2018-03-26T02:47:19","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/imaginingancientcorinth.com\/?page_id=866"},"modified":"2019-08-13T16:46:58","modified_gmt":"2019-08-13T16:46:58","slug":"wealthy-corinth-draft","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/imaginingancientcorinth.com\/?page_id=866","title":{"rendered":"Wealthy Corinth"},"content":{"rendered":"

[vc_row][vc_column][vc_column_text]Geography is one of the keys for understanding Corinth\u2019s prosperity and influence.\u00a0 The isthmus at Corinth has always been a meeting place of east and west, the crossroads at the narrow land bridge between central Greece and the Peloponnese, and between the Gulf of Corinth and the Saronic Gulf.\u00a0 Tyrants and traders, pilgrims and prostitutes took advantage of the twin harbors at Lechaeum and Cenchreae, the sanctuary of Poseidon at Isthmia, and the commercial and civic center at Corinth to create one of the most important city-states in ancient Greece.\u00a0 It is no wonder that ancient writers gave the epithet \u1f00\u03c6\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03ac, \u201cwealthy,\u201d to Corinth.<\/p>\n

\"Map<\/a>
Map of the Isthmus with sites discussed by Pausanias in the mid-2nd century CE.<\/a> CorinthianMatters.com, Map by D. Pettegrew.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

The land of the ancient Corinthians actually encompassed territory on both sides of the isthmus.\u00a0 On the Peloponnesian (south) side, the Corinthian polity extended from the Saronic Gulf on the east to the Nemea River on the west and as far south as the town Tenea.\u00a0 North of the isthmus, Corinthian territory included Cromyum (on the road from Athens and Megara) and the sanctuary of Hera Acraea at Perachora (\u201cthe land beyond\u201d) on the promontory north jutting into the Gulf of Corinth.\u00a0 And just south of ancient Corinth, the fortified citadel of Acrocorinth (573 masl) dominates the landscape and acts as the \u201cfetters of Greece\u201d (Polybius 18.11.5; Jameson).<\/p>\n

\"western<\/a>
“Fair is the Land between Corinth and Sicyon.”<\/a> CorinthianMatters.com, Photo by D. Pettegrew.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

In addition to fertile land, outstanding clay for ceramics, limestone for building, and skilled metalworkers, two ports bring in additional wealth.\u00a0 Corinth\u2019s western harbor, Lechaeum, 3 km north on the Gulf of Corinth, received goods Italy and the west while Cenchreae, 8.5 m east of Corinth on the Saronic Gulf, was the hub for trade from Asia:<\/p>\n

Now this latter [Cenchreae] they use for the trade from Asia, but Lechaeum for that from Italy. Lechaeum lies beneath the city, and does not contain many residences; but long walls about twelve stadia in length have been built on both sides of the road that leads to Lechaeum. (Strabo 8.6.22)<\/p>\n

\"Corinth,<\/a>
View north from the road to Acrocorinth, showing Ancient Corinth, Lechaeum, and Perachora Peninsula.<\/a> CorinthianMatters.com, Photo by D. Pettegrew.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Because of Lechaeum\u2019s proximity to Corinth, the Corinthians built two long walls along the road from Corinth to the port.\u00a0 In all, the city walls around Corinth, Acrocorinth, and Lechaeum measured 10,000 m (Jameson).\u00a0 And the Romans greatly enhanced the harbor, constructing three long moles that created a protection for the harbor and framed a series of basins entered by a narrow waterway (Sanders). Given its location closest to the most fertile land in the Corinthia, its proximity to Corinth itself, and the number of western colonies tied to Corinth, it is not unreasonable to assume that Lechaeum was Corinth\u2019s major port.<\/p>\n

\"Cenchreae:<\/a>
Cenchreae: Plan of the Roman harbor and Koutsongila Ridge to the NE.<\/a> Chronique des fouilles en ligne. KENCHREAI Koutsongila.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Unlike the \u201csparsely-settled\u201d Lechaeum, Cenchreae, farther away to the east, developed a sizable settlement on the south slopes of the promontory that helped protect the harbor.\u00a0 Indeed, the Roman novelist Apuleius in the second century CE described Cenchreae as \u201cbusy with a multitude of people\u201d (Metamorphoses<\/i>\u00a010.35).\u00a0 Like Lechaeum, the Romans enhanced the harbor at Cenchreae with moles and also constructed warehouses, commercial fishtanks, and sanctuaries to Asclepius and Isis (Scranton et al.; Rife). In Apuleius\u2019 novel, the Egyptian goddess Isis appears to Lucius (transformed into an ass) at Cenchreae and instructs him how to transform himself into human form once again by plucking roses in the procession celebrating the\u00a0Navigium Isidis<\/i>, the first day of sailing in the spring.\u00a0 Besides temples to Isis and Asclepius, inscriptions and literary texts attest to cults of Aphrodite, Dionysus, Pan, and Poseidon.\u00a0 It was from Cenchreae, moreover, that the apostle Paul set out in c. 50 CE for Syria after cutting his hair in fulfillment of a vow (Acts 18:18). And Cenchreae must have been the site of a Christian community since Paul mentions a woman named Phoebe who is described as a \u03b4\u03b9\u03ac\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 and \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03c4\u03ac\u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 of the early Christian church at Cenchreae (Romans 16:1-2).<\/p>\n

\"Diolkos<\/a>
Diolkos road near Corinthian Gulf.<\/a> CorinthianMatters.com, Photo by D. Pettegrew.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Thucydides, in a famous passage discussing the rise of maritime states (1.13.5<\/a>), stresses the importance of the Corinthian isthmus not only for maritime commerce but also for overland trade.\u00a0 There is evidence from the 7th<\/sup>-4th<\/sup>centuries BCE that quarried stone was transported 10-25 miles (Burford).\u00a0 For example, the 8-10 ton column drums from the Corinthia found at Eleusis would have required teams of 20-30 oxen to transport them to port and ship them (Raepsaet).\u00a0 From 1956-59, the Greek archaeologist Nikolaos Verdelis excavated several sections of a limestone roadway, conventionally called the diolcus road (dragging road), extending 1100 meters on the western side of the isthmus that may have been used for moving limestone intended for building temples and other major structures.\u00a0 \u00a0These sections, not uniform in construction, dimensions, or date, Verdelis proposed originated with the Corinthian tyrant Periander, but more recent assessments date it to the late 5th<\/sup>\u00a0century (Pettegrew) to late 2nd<\/sup>\u00a0century BCE (Lohmann).\u00a0 A corresponding road on the eastern side of the isthmus has never been found, perhaps because limestone pavers were not needed on the harder substratum to the east (Lohmann).\u00a0 Nor have archaeological surveys uncovered substantial harbors at either end of the road, although Verdelis did identify one part as a quay on the Gulf of Corinth.<\/p>\n

\"Corinth<\/a>
Corinth Canal.<\/a> Wikimedia Commons.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Yet the width of the Corinthian isthmus\u2014roughly 6 km\u2014and its uneven surface\u2014as high as 80 masl and punctuated by ravines\u2014actually make it a barrier to easy passage.\u00a0 Other isthmuses in the eastern Mediterranean, such as at Cnidus or Mimas, Alexandria or Leukas, are much narrower or more easily traversed.\u00a0 \u00a0Even to unload cargoes and then transport them across the isthmus would have required an enormous amount of logistical coordination, time, and energy.\u00a0 Moving several thousand amphorae loaded with oil (50-70 tons) from a relatively small coastal ship would have required 100-140 oxen and 50-70 wagons (Pettegrew).\u00a0 Moreover, the ceramic evidence found in the Corinthia gives little evidence that cross-isthmian trade from west to east to west ever developed.\u00a0 Lawall has shown that most transport amphorae from the 7th<\/sup>\u00a0to 1st<\/sup>\u00a0centuries BCE found to the west of Corinth originate from communities along the Adriatic while those to the east of Corinth belonged to Aegean\u00a0poleis<\/i>.\u00a0 Similarly, early Roman pottery is more frequent in Corinth and Patras than Athens and cities in the Aegean while Cenchreae is dominated by eastern wares (Hayes; Rife et al.).<\/p>\n

\"Diolkos-canal<\/a>
Diolkos and Nero’s canal cuts.<\/a> CorinthianMatters.com, Map by D. Pettegrew.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Given the huge natural and physical obstacles to portaging, therefore, crossing the isthmus was not so much about trading cargoes as it was about gaining glory.\u00a0 As early as the 7th century BCE, the Corinthian tyrant Periander attempted to cut a canal through the isthmus (Diogenes Laertius 1.7), and later Demetrius Poliorcetes and the emperor Caligula (Suet.\u00a0Cal<\/i>. 21) considered doing the same.\u00a0 In 67 CE, the Roman emperor Nero is the first one to have left any archaeological traces of the effort, all to no effect, although mounds of earth moved by Nero\u2019s attempt are still visible on the western side of the isthmus (Suet.\u00a0Nero<\/i>\u00a019.2).\u00a0 At the same time, Vespasian enlisted 6000 Jewish slaves captured at Taricheae in Galilee to provide manpower for Nero\u2019s work (Josephus,\u00a0Jewish War<\/i>\u00a03.540), but work was discontinued after 700 meters were excavated.\u00a0 More frequently, ancient writers record the heroic attempts to transport triremes (warships) across the isthmus.\u00a0 The Spartans first endeavored to portage ships across the isthmus during the Peloponnesian War in 428 and 412 BCE (Thucydides 3.15-16; 8.8), followed by Demetrius of Pharos in 220 and Philip V in 217 BCE (Polybius 4.19.7-9; 5.101.4), King Eumenes of Pergamum in 172 BCE (Livy 42.16), and Octavian after the Battle of Actium as he was chasing Antony and Cleopatra to Alexandria (Cassius Dio 51.5).<\/p>\n

David Pettegrew argues that, in each case, crossing the isthmus\u2014either by cutting a canal or portaging warships\u2014acts as a rhetorical topos that glorifies the attempt, whether successful or not, as an example of a leader\u2019s daring and ambition and as a marker that isthmus is a pivotal location for strategic action.\u00a0 In each instance, the narrative is quick to point out the hard work and effort of those undertaking the crossing and its extraordinary challenge.\u00a0 Unquestionably, the clearest example of the heroic nature of crossing the isthmus is the crossing of Marcus Antonius, the grandfather of Marc Antony, as he pursued the Cilician pirates in 102-101 BCE (Gebhard and Dickie). \u00a0Found reused in a Byzantine ramp on the Lechaeum Road, a Latin inscription in elegiac couplets commemorates the event:<\/p>\n

The thing that no one has attempted nor [dared],
\nLearn this affair, that we may carry on with fame the deeds of the man.
\nUnder the auspices of the proconsul [Marcus Antonius,] the fleet
\nwas led across over the isthmus and sent across the sea.
\nThe proconsul himself set sail for Side, the propraetor Hirrus,
\nbecause of the time of year, stationed the fleet in Athens.
\nThis deed was finished within a few days with little confusion,
\nand with great planning and safety.
\nAnyone who is honest praises the man, and the one who is opposed [is envious].
\nLet them envy provided that they [perceive] what is right. (CIL<\/i>1.2.2662)<\/p>\n

Interestingly, in 2.1.5 Pausanias does not emphasize the heroic nature of crossing the isthmus as much as the divine injunction against violating nature by digging (\u03b4\u03b9\u03bf\u03c1\u03cd\u03c3\u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd) a canal.\u00a0 Although he mentions Alexander the Great\u2019s attempt to dig a canal at Mimas, he refrains from identifying the person who attempted a canal at the isthmus of Corinth.\u00a0 Indeed, he remarks that it is natural (\u1f61\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c6\u03cd\u03ba\u03b5\u03b9) that the isthmus remain intact as mainland (\u1f24\u03c0\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2), for it is difficult to act violently (\u03b2\u03b9\u03ac\u03c3\u03b1\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9) against the gods.\u00a0 It was not until 1893 that a canal, eleven years in the making, was completed permitting traffic and cargoes to cross the isthmus by sea.\u00a0 In these photos and video, you can get a good idea of the amount of earth removed and the depth of the canal.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

\n
\"Corinth<\/a>
Construction of the Corinth Canal, 1882<\/a>\u0399\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u03b1 \u0395\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7 (\u03a0\u0395\u03a1\u0399\u039f\u0394\u0399\u039a\u039f), \u0399\u03a3\u0398\u039c\u039f\u03a3 \u03a4\u0397\u03a3 \u039a\u039f\u03a1\u0399\u039d\u0398\u039f\u03a5, 1882. \u0395\u03c1\u03b3\u03b1\u03c3\u03af\u03b5\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u03ac\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03be\u03b7\u03c2.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
\"Corinth<\/a>
Construction of the Corinth Canal, 1884<\/a> \u0399\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u03b1 \u0395\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03b7 (\u03a0\u0395\u03a1\u0399\u039f\u0394\u0399\u039a\u039f), \u0395\u03c1\u03b3\u03b1\u03c3\u03af\u03b5\u03c2 \u03b4\u03b9\u03ac\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9\u03be\u03b7\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u0399\u03c3\u03b8\u03bc\u03bf\u03cd \u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 \u039a\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u03bd\u03b8\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c4\u03bf 1884.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
\"Corinth<\/a>
Construction of the Corinth Canal, 1886<\/a> photograph of \u0391\u03bd\u03b1\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03c3\u03af\u03bf\u03c5 \u0393\u03b1\u03b6\u03b9\u03ac\u03b4\u03b7<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n
\"Corinth<\/a>
Corinth Canal, 1902<\/a> Theodoros Metallinos, \u0399\u03c3\u03b8\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2 \u039a\u03bf\u03c1\u03af\u03bd\u03b8\u03bf\u03c5, 1902, \u03b4\u03b9\u03ac\u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b7 \u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u03af\u03bf\u03c5.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

 <\/p>\n<\/div>\n

This video\u00a0begins on the Saronic Gulf and moves westward in the direction of the Corinthian Gulf.<\/div>\n
<\/div>\n

Works Cited<\/strong><\/p>\n